Sustainable Development in Nepal: Progress and Challenge
Praju Panta
1.1.
Introductions
The term "development"
originates from the Middle French word development, which comes from the
verb developer, meaning "to unwrap" or "unroll." Nobel
laureate Amartya Sen addressed development in terms of expansion of
capabilities and freedom. Derived from Latin dis- (away) and involvers (to
wrap), "development" in such a scenario carries a connotation of a
process of unfastening, or unfolding, of capabilities of humans. In terms of
actual freedom that will allow one to enjoy life one values, according to Sen,
such freedom must be taken into consideration in development appraisal, in
addition to economic factors (Sen, 1999). "To enable developing countries
to enable citizens to make use of talent, to enjoy full and satisfying lives,
and to steadily rise in fortunes" (Schumacher, 1975) was an explicit
objective of a British Government White Paper for Overseas Development. For
Amartya Sen (2001), expansion of freedom is both a key means and an end of
development. For him, development is a process that expands capabilities of
humans to act in a manner in which one values acting. For Sen (2009), at the
core of human life is exercising one's reasoned agency, and development must
entail allowing humans to seek ends and transform lives for improvement.
According to 1987 World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCED), sustainable development is a practice of
satisfying current requirements in a manner that doesn't threaten future
generations' capabilities to satisfy their requirements. Triple Bottom Line,
with its concern for balanced practice between three dimensions of
sustainability, namely, environment, society, and economy, constitutes premise
for such a concept. Conservation of environment's integrity, that is,
significant for both humanity and economy, is environment's target for
sustainability. Human rights, equality, social justice, conservation of
cultures, and tolerance for diversity constitute social sustainability's
objectives. Maintaining the natural, social, and human assets for generating
incomes and raising living standards is a function of economic sustainability
(Klarin, 2018).
The 1972 United Nations Conference on
the Human Environment boosted the concept of sustainable development. "Our
Common Future," 1987 Brundtland Report, stressed balancing fairness in
society, conservation of environment, and economy's expansion. 1992 Earth
Summit (UNCED), in uniting all such factors, and creation of Commission for
Sustainable Development in 1993 for administration and development of Agenda
21, constitute important milestones. Sustainable development gained a boost in
international commitment through events such as 1997 Earth Summit +5, 2000
Millennium Summit, 2002 World Summit for Sustainable Development, and 2012
Rio+20 conference.
Turner (1988) suggests that an ideal
practice for a sustainability growth policy would try to have an acceptable
growth in real incomes per capita without depletion of national assets and
assets in the natural environment. Sustainable development, in terms of Conway
(1987), is a sustained productivity of biomass over long timespans. WCED (1987)
re-emphasizes that development must meet current needs in a way that will not
destroy future generations' ability to meet their requirements.
The objectives of
sustainable development.
Sustainable development
(SD) aims to achieve a balance among social sustainability, economic and
environmental sustainability forming three core pillars of SD.-SEE
•
Social sustainability depends
on strong health systems, peace, human rights, decent work, gender equality,
quality education, and the rule of law.
•
Economic sustainability relies
on responsible practices in production, distribution, and consumption to ensure
long-term viability.
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The
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) |
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Goal
1 |
Eradicate
extreme poverty and hunger |
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Goal
2 |
Achieve
universal primary education |
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Goal
3 |
Promote
gender equality and empower women |
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Goal
4 |
Reduce
child mortality |
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Goal
5 |
Improve
maternal health |
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Goal
6 |
Combating
HIV/AIDs, malaria, and other diseases |
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Goal
7 |
Ensure
environmental sustainability |
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Goal
8 |
Develop
a global partnership for development |
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•
Environmental sustainability is
driven by proper land use, physical planning, and biodiversity conservation,
with an emphasis on intergenerational equity to meet the needs of both current
and future generations.
1.2.
Transitions from Millennium
Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals
In
September 2000, the leaders signed the United Nations Millennium Declaration at
the UN Headquarters in New York. This declaration through the Millennium
Development Goals committed the nations to a new global partnership by which
reduction of extreme poverty would be attained by 2015. The MDGs were important
as they created a universal phrase that encourages world agreement. The eight
goals involved measurable and monitored processes and were also attainable and
can easily be understood. The first goal of the series, eradicating the rate of
extreme poverty by half until 2015, is met, that indeed shows significant steps
towards attaining the goals of MDG's. Still the progress hasn't been unanimous.
What there is to talk about, toward a post-2015 agenda in light of the
expiration year 2015 for MDG, should form a world which gives sufficient
weighing to environmental sustainability, social inclusivity, and economic
development.
In
fact, the MDGs took up an inclusive, integrated approach. Their inspiration
from the Millennium Declaration, regarding development as a right at
traditionally deprived groups like ethnic minorities and indigenous groups, and
women. In all, 189 countries vowed to achieve these goals, Nepal being one,
while reiterating its commitment through successive national development plans.
The Tenth Plan PRSP (NPC 2003) integrated MDGs into a strategic framework with
an emphasis on private sector-led economic growth as a major means to reduction
of poverty. The successive TYIP, 2007/08–2009/10 (NPC 2007), continued the
targets set for poverty reduction and growth but reiterated that the state has
to play a more strategic role in development and inclusion, particularly in the
remote areas, and to include socially marginalized groups. These eight MDGs
stemming from the Millennium Declaration signed by 189 countries in the year
2000, represented through 147 heads of state and government, with further
agreements on the 2005 World Summit, are interconnected and thus to be regarded
as such. In a sense, they signify partnership between countries developed and
developing by providing a propelling environment conducive to development
itself and elimination of poverty United Nations Millennium Declaration 55/2).
1.3.
The Global Consultation of
Sustainable Development Goals
The
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (2000–2015) initiated a global endeavor to
tackle critical developmental challenges such as poverty, education, and
health. Nepal demonstrated notable progress under the MDGs, achieving several
key targets:
· Poverty
Reduction: Nepal successfully reduced its poverty rate from
41.8% in 1996 to 25.2% by 2011.
· Education:
The country achieved near-universal enrollment in primary education, with
significant strides in gender parity.
· Health:
There were substantial improvements in maternal and child mortality rates.
Despite these
achievements, the MDGs had certain limitations. They predominantly focused on
developing nations, overlooked issues like climate change and inequality, and
lacked a comprehensive mechanism for stakeholder collaboration. In response to
these gaps, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted in 2015. The
SDGs expanded the focus to include climate action, sustainable cities, and
peace, among other priorities. For Nepal, this entailed integrating 17 diverse
goals into national plans while addressing structural challenges such as
governance and resource mobilization. The SDGs also emphasize local engagement,
allowing Nepal to align the global framework with its unique context.
The development of the SDGs was
encouraged by the Rio+20 conference, known as the United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development that took place in Rio de Janeiro in June 2012. The
purpose of this meeting was to develop a global development framework that
would maintain the momentum created by the MDGs after 2015. An online and
offline globally consultation was held to design a new, people-centered
development agenda. The representatives included civil society organizations,
individuals, academia, science, and the private sector from all over the world.
The various activities involved the United Nations Development Programmer’s My
World survey, country and thematic consultations. Specialized panels were also
present which offered a platform for intergovernmental dialogue. These
consultation processes had their results summarized by the UN
Secretary-General. In July 2014, the UN General Assembly OWG proposed a
document with 17 goals that were to be put forward for approval by the General
Assembly in September 2015. The said document laid the ground for the new SDGs
and the global development agenda for 2015-2030.
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Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) as proposed by the OWG |
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End poverty in all its
forms everywhere |
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End hunger, achieve
food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture |
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Ensure healthy lives
and promote well-being for all at all ages |
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Ensure inclusive and
equitable quality education and promote life-long learning opportunities for
all |
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Achieve gender equality
and empower all women and girls |
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Ensure availability and
sustainable management of water and sanitation for all |
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Ensure access to
affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all |
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Promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment,
and decent work for all |
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Build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and
foster innovation |
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Reduce inequality
within and among countries |
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Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable |
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Ensure sustainable
consumption and production patterns |
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Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its impacts |
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Conserve and
sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable
development |
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Protect, restore and
promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and halt
biodiversity loss |
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Promote peaceful and
inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice
for all, and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all
levels |
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Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable
development |
1.4 Progress of
Sustainable development goals in Nepal
I.
End poverty in all its forms
everywhere: As per the commitment to Sustainable
Development Goal 1, Nepal has recorded some key achievements regarding poverty
reduction. Based on the incidence of the 2010-11 base, the headcount ratio of
poverty in Nepal declined from 25.16 percent in 2010-11 to 3.57 percent in
2022-23. However, more than one-fifth of the population is still below the
poverty line, and with a larger discrepancy in rural parts, regardless of the
readjustments in 2022 and 2023 to the benchmark of the national poverty line.
Gross disposable income in Nepal, in USD, also increased from $766 in 2015 to
$1755 in 2022, in part due to abroad work options. The share of the population
living in Multidimensional Poverty has dropped from 30.1 percent in 2014 to
17.4 percent in 2022 in Nepal. Apart from this, the share of the population
under the social safety system has been extended beyond its target of 41.7
percent in 2022 with 47 percent. The share of households using financial
services has also increased from 40 percent in 2015 to 62 percent in 2022.
II.
End hunger, achieve food security and
improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture: Nepal
has achieved mixed success toward SDG 2, which focuses on zero hunger. The
country has made great progress in reducing undernourishment among the
population, from which only 5.4 percent were undernourished in 2022, with only
a target of 20.6 percent for the same year. The prevalence of stunting among
children under five years of age also declined from 36 percent in 2015 to 24.8
percent by 2022, surpassing the target of 28.6 percent. Thirdly, Nepal achieved
its targets for the reduction of severe and moderate food insecurity, with the
respective rates of 1.3 percent and 11.2 percent in 2022.
III.
Ensure healthy lives and well-being for all at
all ages: Good health and well-being have also been
significantly enhanced in Nepal's quest to realize the attainment of
Sustainable Development Goal 3. For instance, from 2015 to 2022, there was a
sharp drop in the maternal mortality ratio, from 258 maternal deaths per
100,000 live births to 151. Furthermore, in 2022, the proportion of births
attended by skilled health personnel reached 80.1 percent, higher than the
target of 73 percent. The country also achieved striking results in two other
areas, namely, a reduction in the number of new HIV infections among adults
aged 15-49 years, and the share of people living with HIV receiving
antiretroviral combination therapy for 2022, both of which outstrip the set
targets. On the other hand, progress has been slower or has even regressed in
such fields as under-five mortality rates and neonatal mortality.
IV.
Ensure inclusive and equitable
quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all: Nepal
has gained significantly in pursuit of relevant, inclusive, and equitable
quality education in line with SDG 4. Pre-primary, technical and vocational,
tertiary, work skills, adult literacy, and numeracy trends are satisfactory in
the country. In 2022, it attained a 97.1 percent net enrolment in primary
school, which is closing in on 99 percent, the target. Besides, 85.7 percent of
the students who joined grade one proceeded to grade eight in 2022, an
indication of increased retention. There have also been considerable
improvements in the provision of scholarships, with 39.7 percent of the
students benefiting in 2022, a little over its target of 39.3 percent. Besides,
gender parity in school-going has been maintained at all levels of education.
V.
Achieve gender equality and empower all women
and girls: Nepal has achieved mixed progress toward
ensuring gender equality, as set out in SDG 5. The country has achieved
significant progress in reducing the prevalence of physical or sexual violence
against women. The proportion of women aged 15-49 years who have experienced
physical or sexual violence stands at 12.2 percent in 2022, against the target
of 13.9 percent. Furthermore, the percentage of women aged 20-24 years who were
married or in a union before age 15 is declining, while the proportion of child
marriage is reduced. Representation by women in the national parliament,
provincial parliament, and local government bodies stands at 33.6 percent, 34.5
percent, and 40.9 percent, respectively, indicating increased political
participation and leadership by women.
VI.
Ensure availability and sustainable
management of water and sanitation for all: According to the
records of SDG 6, Nepal has presented mixed development to access safe water
and sanitation. Considerable improvement has been observed in access to basic
water supply in Nepal, and in 2022, about 96.4 percent access to basic water
supply was documented, surpassing the target for 92.6 percent. Similarly, in
2022, access to safely managed sanitation service with a soap- and
water-facilitated washing facility reached 61.1 percent, almost nearing the 62
percent target. Access to basic sanitation service has improved significantly:
95.5 percent of households were able to access basic sanitation in 2022,
against 89.9 percent targets.
VII.
Ensure access to affordable, reliable,
sustainable and modern energy for all: Access to affordable and clean energy: Nepal
achieved tremendous improvement in achieving the targets of SDG 7. The share of
the population having access to electricity reached an impressive 95 percent in
2022, surpassing the target of 85.7 percent for that year. Besides, per capita
energy consumption increased to 21.92 gigajoules in 2022, exceeding the target
of 19.7 gigajoules. There is equally a drift toward cleaner ways of cooking, as
the percentage of households with solid fuel as their main source of energy for
cooking decreased to 53.9 percent in 2022, exceeding the target of 55 percent.
VIII.
Promote sustained, inclusive, and
sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work
for all: Nepal has only made partial progress toward achieving
SDG 8 on promoting sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full
and productive employment, and decent work for all. In 2022, the annual growth
rate of real GDP per capita was only 1.02 percent, which is far below the
target level of 4.5 percent for the same year. The annual increase in real GDP
per employed person was also shy of target at 4.5 percent in 2022, short of the
5.5 percent target. Similarly, though tourism jobs were added annually to reach
371,140 last year, it fell short of the 514,700 targets. On the bright side,
life insurance coverage significantly covered 19 percent of the population in
2022, whereas the target coverage was 14.3 percent. However, the percentage
share of adults who have an account at a bank or other financial institution
went down to 51.1% in 2022 against its target of 64.3%.
IX.
Build resilient infrastructure,
promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation: Nepal
has made reasonable progress in resilient infrastructure, inclusive and
sustainable industrialization, and innovation, on track to attaining SDG 9. The
country showed improvement in road density, with the density of paved roads
increasing to 0.12 km/sq. km in 2022, which met the target for that year. In
addition, the share of manufacturing employment in total employment increased
to 15.1 percent in 2022 from the target of 9.6 percent. Enrollment in science
and technology as a proportion of total enrollment increased to 10.9 percent in
2022 from the target of 10.6 percent.
X.
Reduce inequality within and among
countries: According to SDG 10, Nepal has mixed
progress toward reduction in inequalities within the country. The Gini
coefficient of income inequality decreased to 0.31 in 2022, which is less than
the target of 0.35 for that year. Besides, the share of the bottom 40 percent
of the population in total consumption and income reached 25.7 percent and 20.4
percent, respectively. The Global Competitiveness Index also attained 5.1 in
2022 from the targeted 4.9. Challenges are seen to persist in some areas. The
Palma ratio-a calculation of the ratio of income inequality between the richest
10 percent and the poorest 40 percent of the population-reached 1.34 in 2022,
meaning that households of the rich are getting farther away from poor
households.
More
critical still, the ratio between the wage index and the consumer price index
stood unchanged in 2022 at 2.02, which means that wage growth has not kept pace
with price increases.
XI.
Make cities and human settlements
inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable: In implementing
the SGD, as stated in SDG 11, making its urban and human settlements inclusive,
safe, resilient, and sustainable, Nepal has achieved great milestones. The
urban and informal settlement population declined to 200 000 in 2022, beating
325 000, its target for 2022. Also, regarding thatched and straw roofing in a
household, the proportion declined to 3.9 percent in 2022, beating 12.5
percent, its target for 2022. Percentage of safe housing for a household
increased to 54 in 2022 from 43.9 percent targeted for 2022. Thirdly, plans for
new city development rose to 54 in 2022 from 33 targeted in its 2022 target.
XII.
Ensure sustainable consumption and production
patterns: Nepal has attained a satisfactory level of improvement
in its consumption and production toward a level that is sustainable regarding
SDG 12. In the meantime, consumption of energy from fossil fuel went up to 27.1
percent in the year 2022 against its target for 2022 at 13.7 percent. In
contrast, agricultural land use for cereal production declined to 76.3 percent
in 2022, against its target for 2022. However, the organic matter in the soil
remained at 1.96 percent in 2022 below its target at 2.4 percent.
XIII.
Take urgent action to combat climate
change and its impacts: Nepal has attained considerable
success in several sectors under Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG 13).
Greenhouse gas emissions in industries, commercial, and transport sectors have
been lowered remarkably in Nepal, overachieving 2022 targets. Preparation of
241 such Local Adaptation Plans of Action has also surpassed a target of 60 in
2022. There has been considerable development and operationalization of
Community Adaptation Plans, with achievement and near achievement of 2022
targets.
XIV.
Sustainably use the oceans, seas, and
marine resources for sustainable development: The
Nepal government has not adopted these goals, so the progress data is not
available here.
XV.
Protect, restore and promote
sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat
desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity
loss: Nepal has made commendable progress towards achieving
Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG 15). The country has successfully
increased its forest area to 45.31 percent of the total land area in 2022,
surpassing the target of 45 percent. Community-based Forest management has also
shown remarkable progress, with 42.49 percent of dense forest areas under
community management, exceeding the 2022 target. Protected areas have been
maintained at 23.39 percent of the total land area, meeting the target. The conservation
of lakes, wetlands, and ponds has seen significant improvement, with 3,571
conserved by 2022, surpassing the target of 3,254. Additionally, the number of
biological corridors has increased to 11, meeting the 2022 target. These
conservation efforts have contributed to the protection of endangered species
such as wild tigers and the one-horned rhinoceros.
XVI.
Promote peaceful and inclusive
societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and
build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels:
Nepal
has achieved mixed results for most of the targets included in Sustainable
Development Goal 16. The percentage of children subjected to psychological
and/or physical punishment decreased from the baseline value of 81.7 percent to
77.6 percent in 2022 but is yet to fall below the target at 44 percent. For
example, the annual number of children trafficked abroad declined significantly
to 23 in 2022 from the targeted 34. The percentage of 18-29-year-old female and
male youth who have experienced sexual abuse before age 18 declined to 4
percent and met the target in 2022. In relation to per capita, perceived
corruption in society declined to 15 percent and also met the 2022 target.
Government expenditure against the approved budget almost reached the target,
reaching 81.15 percent. Registration at birth for under five years reached
almost 77.2 percent, while a 79 percent target was set for 2022. Besides, the
issuance of national identity cards increased over the target, with 8.76
million citizens having received them through 2022.
XVII.
Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development: Nepal has fared well in a few aspects of
SDG 17, but not in many. The percentage of citizens accessing the internet
increased appreciably, and in 2022 it reached 70.2 percent, exceeding the
target of 69.2 percent. It is a positive development in terms of expansion in
access to digital connectivity. Development of the macroeconomic dashboards has
shown improvement, where three have so far been constructed in the year 2022
against a target of four constructions. However, several indicators were
showing slow improvements and even dropping. The share of federal government
revenues in terms of GDP attained 19.9 percent in 2022, below the target of
24.2 percent. The percentage of domestic budget financed through domestic taxes
declined to 67.4 percent below target 77.9 percent. Official development
assistance in terms of percent of total domestic budget continued at 15.0
percent, below target 16.4 percent in 2022. Inward stock of FDI in terms of
percent of GDP continued at 6.2 percent, below target 10.8 percent. Besides
that, remittance in per cent of Gross Domestic Product-GDP shrunk to 22.8 per
cent, which is a backtrack development.
1.5.Issues and Challenges
Ø Decreasing food diversity and low nutritional
Awareness: There is a
perceivable decline in food diversity and overall unawareness regarding the
importance of food and nutrition security. Most individuals lack any
information regarding healthy food preparation, and universally accessible,
well-presented healthy foods are not present.
Ø Changing food Habits and declining local food
Culture: There is increased consumption
of processed foods, eroding traditional diets and food cultures at a national
level. It is a contributing cause towards nutritional inadequacies and a
growing burden of non-communicable disease associated with unhealthy diets,
such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
Ø Low Productivity and High Post-Harvest losses: The agricultural economy in Nepal is characterized
by a high proportion of subsistence farming, with commercial and
semi-commercial farming in a minor proportion of regions, and with a narrow
range of economic development and level of scales. Farm level production is
low, and high post-harvest loss reduces farmers' incomes and overall
availability even more.
Ø Climate vulnerability and Resource depletion: The food system in Nepal experiences a lack of
climate resilience, with its vulnerability to climatic shocks and catastrophes
being a recurring feature. Besides, overexploitation of groundwater for
irrigation, underpinned by shifts in precipitation under climate change, has
hastened groundwater depletion in most regions of the country.
Ø Inadequate Agricultural Infrastructure and Market
systems: Insufficient infrastructure for
cold chains, markets, and storage, and low level of mechanization drive high
production costs and poor market connectivity. Poor distribution networks also
cause high food prices and low competitiveness in the domestic marketplace.
1.6.Conclusion
Nepal's pursuit of sustainable development both reflects
its potential and poses challenges in achieving the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) in a developing-country context. There is considerable achievement
in areas such as eradicating poverty, education, and renewable energy, for
example, but in governance, inequality, and climate resilience, considerable
work remains to be done. To accelerate development, Nepal will have to build
its institution, forge public-private partnerships, and develop in an inclusive
manner that reaches out to all citizens. By overcoming such a challenge, not
only can Nepal realize the SDGs, but it can serve as a model for countries in
similar situations.
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